Tag: clothing

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Phillosoph

Victorian Shades of Grey

Today I came across an interesting thread on a forum.
This establishes that khaki (beige)/drab uniforms had been adopted for their resemblance to mud or dirt rather than vegetation.

Further down were two intriguing extracts:

The article from The Times reports some experiments performed to study the effect of uniform colour on visibility. The term “camouflage” would not be coined until the First World War.
The recommendation is for the adoption of a tunic, trousers, greatcoat and helmet cover in the grey then currently worn by the 3rd Devonshire Volunteers (3rd Devonshire Artillery Volunteer Corps?).
A tunic of scarlet, blue or green would be worn with the dress uniform and one of grey used for undress and active service.
More practical might have been to issue the home service helmet in grey and have a more decorated cover for parade wear.
I have been unable to determine how light a shade of grey this was, nor if it was a “warmer” or “cooler” grey.
The suggestion that existing white equipment be stained with an umber solution may imply that it was a warmer shade.
The shade of brown the equipment would have dyed is also unknown. Presumably this was of a similar shade to the grey.
I like the thought that evidently went into this report. Since grey will go with nearly anything, a smarter uniform can be created by just changing tunic colour.
Grey Home Service Helmet https://www.militarysunhelmets.com/2013/the-british-home-service-helmet
Some volunteer regiments already wore grey home service helmets.
The second extract (shown first on the original page) is an account of a discussion in the House of Commons that predates The Times article and may have inspired the experiments reported.
Soldiers of the Rifle Brigade are described in the report as wearing black when their uniform is actually dark green with black equipment. Although the dark green rifle uniform is often attributed to being a form of camouflage, it was unlikely to be so in practice in terrain other than dark forests.
Of particular note in this extract is the discussion of poorly designed uniforms that restrict the soldier.
Jump forward to just before World War Two and you will hear similar discussions.
Then again in the 1970s and 80s.
And if we now look at modern combat wear, we still see overly tailored uniforms that restrict movement, air-circulation and provide poor camouflage.

There were, apparently, some efforts to adopt grey uniforms and in at least one campaign both khaki and grey were used by the British Army. Note that some illustrations show combinations of grey and khaki. Also note references to stained “off-white” equipment.
Shown above is a Coldstream Guards uniform from the Sudan campaign.
The suggestions about dying white equipment seem to have been only partly observed, however, and presumably buckles and buttons were still polished.
It is worth noting that later designs of military uniform covered buttons with a fly front, like a paletot coat.
Indian-based units (the greater part of the British Army) seem to have already adopted khaki.
Khaki uniforms seem to have been cotton drill, while grey were woolen serge.
Which would have been adopted would have been of considerable economic interest to the cotton and wool producers of the Empire.
Wool production was mainly within the British Isles, while cotton production was in the overseas areas of the Empire.
History suggests the cotton growers had the more influence.
So, with a few twists of fate, the familiar image of the Victorian soldier in khaki with white equipment might have been in grey, with umber equipment and bronze buckles. 
Perhaps the army might have adopted grey serge for temperate climes and cotton khaki for hotter postings. Or use grey trousers and greatcoat with a khaki service tunic.
Some other armies of the time issued “summer” and “winter” tunics, often of different shades and cloth types.
The Times of March 29th, 1883:
THE COLOUR OF ARMY UNIFORM
The report of the Colour Committee appointed by the Field-Marshal Commanding-in-Chief to consider and report what colour, suitable for military uniform, is least conspicuous, was published yesterday as a Parliamentary paper. The Instructions given to the Committee were as follows:
"Having regard to the increased range of rifled arms and the consequent exposure to troops to fire at great distances, that exposure of troops to fire at great distances, that exposure continuing and being enhanced as they approach the enemy, it is desirable that Her Majesty's forces on active service should wear uniform of the colour ascertained to be the least conspicuous.
"It is observed that the use of a neutral colour – Khakee – is general in India, and at the same time that at least four colours are generally worn by Her Majesty's troops elsewhere, each of these (except, perhaps, in the case of the green worn by the Rifles) having been adopted without reference to their greater or less visibility.
"It appears, under these circumstances, desirable that, in the first instance, before the question is discussed with reference to other considerations, a scientific enquiry should take place as to the comparative visibility of different colours suitable for military uniform in the field.
"His Royal Highness has recommended to the Secretary of State that two or more persons of undoubted scientific authority on the question of this character should be invited to co-operate with a small number of officers with a view to carry out any practical experiments which may be necessary for the complete discussion and utilization of known facts on this subject.
"A committee composed as follows: President. – Lieutenant-General Sir. G.J. Wolseley, G.C.B.,G.C.M.G.; members – Major-General R.B. Hawley, O.B.; Major-General J.H.F. Elkington, O.B.; Director of Clothing – has been appointed to consider this question.
"Professors Abel and Stokes will co-operate with the Committee, and as the utility of the enquiry will depend upon the nature of the questions submitted to these gentlemen, it is recommended that this should be arranged with one or both of them beforehand.
"The Committee will cause experiments to be made as to the visibility of various colours, and the relative merits of – scarlet, green, blue, khakee, and gray (warm or cold shade); and report what colour suitable for military uniform is under all the ordinary conditions of war, the least conspicuous.
"Supposing the colour found to be the least conspicuous is not scarlet, green, or blue, does it possess such advantages over those colours that the Committee would recommend its general adoption.
"It is recommended that the practical experiments necessary to test the various colours had better be carried out at Aldershot.
"C.H. ELLICE, A.G"
The following is the report of the Committee:
"On the termination of the experiments by the scientific members of the Committee and on the rendering of their report, the Committee desire to lay before the Secretary of State the conclusion to which they have come, after careful consideration of that report.
"In accordance with the instructions of his Royal Highness the Field-Marshal Commanding-in-Chief, at the first meeting of the Committee Professors Abel & Stokes were consulted on the best means of carrying out the scientific inquiry as to the comparative visibility of different colours suitable for military uniform in the field. A detailed account of these experiments will be found in their report, which is submitted herewith.
"It may be briefly stated that a series of experiments were carried out under varying conditions of weather, atmosphere, surroundings, and background – the object being to make them as exhaustive as possible. Various members of the Committee were present during these experiments, which were under the immediate superintendence of Professors Abel and Stokes.
"The result was to eliminate all the colours at present used in the dress of the Army, and the glaring conspicuousness of white and scarlet was at once evident.
"On the other hand, the neutral colours, more particularly the Indian 'Khakee' and certain volunteer grays, were indistinct even at short distances, and, in comparison with the Army colours, all but invisible at long ranges.
"The question was in the end narrowed down to a shade of gray, which, besides its character of invisibility, stands exposure to rain and sun without fading.
"The Committee recommend that this gray (now worn by the 3rd Devon Volunteers) should be adopted as the service dress of the Army.
"As it would, however, be unadvisable to break entirely with the traditions attached to the red uniform of the British Army, the Committee recommend that red or scarlet (and blue or green for corps wearing those colours) should be retained for full dress; but that on all other occasions the gray should take the place of the present undress. By this arrangement the Committee think the advantages, as recruiting, to be gained from an attractive uniform will be retained, while at the same time men and officers will become familiar with a colour which, there can be no question, is the best for active service. The Committee consider that the greatcoats and trousers should be of this gray colour, and that a gray helmet cover should also be issued.
"Intimately connected with the question of the colour of the uniform is that of pipeclayed belts and white haversacks. White, under all but very exceptional circumstances, is the most conspicuous colour of all, and it would avail little to substitute gray for scarlet if the white accoutrements are retained. By the use of an umber colouring (of a similar nature to pipeclay) the belts may be made nearly invisible at a distance, and its employment permits their colour being changed at will.
"This colouring, as prepared by Professor Abel, has been practically tried and found to answer remarkably well. The Committee therefore recommend its general adoption throughout the Army, the umber belts to be worn at all times on active service.
"The haversack, instead of being of white material, should be of the same colour as the belts.
"No practical test was made as to the conspicuousness of the shining metal portions of the soldier's uniform and accoutrements, but it is evident that in sunlight these would attract the eye, and so weaken the advantage gained by the use of gray uniform and brown belts. The Committee therefore recommend that all ornaments, buttons, &c., of the gray uniform should be bronze, and not polished; and that on active service a brown lacquer should be applied to the bayonets, metal scabbards, and all other bright portions of the accoutrements.
"G.J. WOLSELEY, A.G., President
"R.B. HAWLEY, D.A.G.
"JOHN ELKINGTON, D.A.G.
"GEORGE D. RAMSAY, Director of Clothing.
"F.A. Abel.
"G.G.STOKES.
"H.C. REYNOLDS, Major, D.A.Q.M.G., Secretary
"July 25, 1882."
OBSERVATIONS.HC Deb 13 March 1882 vol 267 cc781-5:
§ COLONEL BARNE rose to call attention to the dress of the Army, and said, that, had the Forms of the House permitted, he should have been glad to have moved the following Resolution:— ‘That the present conspicuous colour and tight-fitting Dress of the Army interferes with the efficiency of the soldier and causes the unnecessary loss of many valuable lives.’ He had brought forward the subject last year, when the right hon. Gentleman the Secretary of State for War admitted that a change ought to be made in this respect, and suggested that he should bring the matter on when the Estimates for Soldiers' Clothing were discussed. He regretted that he had not done so; but when the time came two-thirds of the House were absent, and he deferred bringing the subject forward, in the hope that it would receive a more satisfactory discussion than it could have obtained last year. Nothing had yet been done in the matter, and he should like to know whether the right hon. Gentleman really intended carrying out what he had said? He did not complain of want of alteration in the uniform of the Army, because those changes had been frequent, and he knew that some of the small alterations which had been made had been of a vexatious character, and had been the cause of great expense to officers. Last year the right hon. Gentleman ordered the stars to be removed from the collars of the officers to their shoulder straps, and this slight change, which did no good whatever, cost each officer in the Guards about £20. The other day he was talking to an old Militia officer, who told him that since the year 1852 his headdress had been changed no fewer than eight times. His (Colonel Barne's) complaint was that the alterations were made in an entirely wrong direction. First, with regard to the colours worn, it had been found by the Emperor Napoleon that the most conspicuous were white, black, gamboge, and then scarlet; thus, the dress of our Army was composed of the most conspicuous colours that could be found. The Rifles, for instance, who ought to be the least visible, were clothed in black, which was the second most conspicuous colour. Modern warfare consisted largely of battles between two lines of skirmishers, each armed with weapons of precision, so that the loss of life was necessarily conspicuous amongst the more conspicuous body. This was proved by the experience of our men in the conflict with the Boers in South Africa, and more recently by the testimony of the Austrians in Herzegovina. Our losses in the Transvaal War were, generally speaking, due to the superior marksmanship of the Boers, and their ability to pick out our men, whereas the English soldiers complained that they could see nothing of the enemy except their heads. It was found that the grey dress of the Rifles was far less conspicuous. That colour was also advocated by Military and Volunteer officers who had tested the point. He also advocated a change of colour on the ground of economy, for the scarlet dye took the oil out of the wool and impaired its durability. He objected to the tight-fitting tunic, because it did not allow the lungs to expand in a natural way when a man began to ascend a hill, or to do any kind of hard work. The regulation trouser was also objectionable, because it gave an immense drag at the knee, especially if it got wet through. He should like to see the British troops dressed in a Norfolk jacket, breeches loose at the knee, and gaiters, with a light helmet, which would not impede the men in their work. He could not move the Resolution of which he had given Notice; but he had ventured to bring the subject under the notice of the right hon. Gentleman, in the hope that he would consider it, and make a move, if possible, in the direction indicated.
§ LORD ELCHO said, he entirely agreed with the hon. and gallant Member who had just sat down (Colonel Barne), that an unnecessary expenditure had been thrown upon officers by the alteration in the collar and shoulder straps, also that soldiers should wear a dress thoroughly adapted to the work they had to do, and did not think he could add anything to what he had said. As to the question of expense entailed by the changes in the uniform, such as altering the mark of rank from the collar to a shoulder strap, he believed the cost to an officer involved by the renewal of uniform in accordance with the changes was about £20, which he was bound to say was a very unnecessary expenditure. As regarded the question of convenience and comfort in the matter of uniform, he was an advocate of easy clothing, as the movements of a soldier should not be constrained by his uniform. The clothing of the hard-working navvies was loose, and they wore a strap under the knee to prevent the dragging of the trousers. He believed it was a fact that if two men, equal in all other respects, were set to walk, one dressed in knickerbockers or a kilt, and the other in the present uniform of a soldier, in course of the day the former would very considerably outwalk the other; and, besides, trousers were not so fitted for work as other descriptions of clothing. The Secretary of State for War was the person really responsible for the efficiency of the uniform; and he wondered how his right hon. Friend the present Secretary of State for War, who was a most kind and indulgent man, and about as sensible a one as he (Lord Elcho) was acquainted with, when he went down every day to his office could bear to see the sentries with trousers so tight at the knees and baggy below, that it seemed impossible for them to go up and down hill without splitting them. The trousers were, in fact, the very reverse of what they ought to be. It was the custom to ridicule the "peg-tops" worn by the French troops; but they were much more sensible than the trousers of the English soldier. Then, in the Cavalry, the clothes were so tight that the men could hardly mount, and only did so at imminent risk of splitting their trousers. He hoped his right hon. Friend would give his attention to these matters, which were by no means trivial, but essential to the welfare and efficiency of the Army, and would see especially that good and efficient leggings were supplied. He would now turn to the question of colour. As regards the colour, the War Office Volunteer Committee had reported in favour of the Volunteers being clothed in red. He had on his right his hon. and gallant Friend the Member for Berkshire (Sir Robert Loyd Lindsay), who was a Member of that Committee. He was a great advocate of scarlet, and, having won his Victoria Cross in red, naturally thought there was no colour like scarlet for the British soldier. But he (Lord Elcho) did not share in that partiality, and he therefore obtained permission for the regiment he commanded to retain their old grey uniform; and he hoped that, instead of the whole Force being put into red, they would be turned into grey. When the Army went to India, the soldiers were dressed in a uniform khaki or dust colour, and in the Ashantee campaign the dress of the London Scottish was adopted. At the time of the Edinburgh Volunteer Review, he met Sir Frederick Roberts, after he had been round looking at the troops as they were drawn up, and that officer said— ‘I only wish an order would come out that within five years every Volunteer should be clothed in grey instead of red. I am so struck with grey as being a very much better colour than red.’ He (Lord Elcho) had great hopes that, instead of all the Volunteers becoming red, there was some chance from some thing he had heard—and perhaps his right hon. Friend would tell the House if he was right—that the working dress of the Army would be made grey. He was told that experiments were being made at the present with a view of testing what really was the effect of colour at distances in Woolwich marshes and elsewhere. With the small Army we were able to put into the held these were matters of the greatest importance, for it simply meant whether in action a greater or less proportion of our men were to be hit or not. Recently, wishing to try some experiments with a range finder, and sighting a Martini-Henry rifle, he had a target erected at 2,000 yards distance. Had that target been grey, he would not have seen it at the distance; but he covered it with red Turkey twill, and saw it flaming at the other end like a danger signal on a railway. To give them an idea of the accuracy of the weapon, every shot from that distance would have gone into a space not larger than the Palace Yard, or into a regiment in column. Whether they could see men or not at that distance, would depend on the colour of their dress; and with the view of effecting a saving of life, as well as on the score of convenience and comfort, the question of uniform was one which should be thoroughly gone into.
§ MR. CHILDERS said, he was sure no Member of the House would complain of the character of the remarks which the hon. and gallant Gentleman (Colonel Barne) and his noble Friend (Lord Elcho) had made. He must, however, take exception to one of the remarks of the hon. and gallant Member about small alterations of uniform, and especially about the change made above a year ago in the marks on the collar and shoulder strap denoting rank. For these he (Mr. Childers) was not responsible; but he had clearly informed the House last year that henceforward the Secretary of State would be responsible for changes in uniform, and to this declaration he adhered. As to the particular object of the hon. and gallant Gentleman, he quite agreed in his general position that, putting colour aside, the fighting uniform of a soldier should be as appropriate for fighting as the shooting dress of a sportsman or gamekeeper was for the pursuit of game. In one respect the authorities were hardly responsible for undue tightness of dress, which they did not encourage, and which was the result often of commanding officers wanting their men to look smarter, and tightening their tunics. On the question of colour, he proposed to offer some explanation, when they were in Committee, as part of his general statement. He would only say now, that there was more to consider than the mere question of greater or less visibility, important as that was as a factor in the case.
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Phillosoph

Kephart's Summer Outfit

There are a number of topics I intend to cover in the near future. The starting point for many of them begins with Horace Kephart, so it is prudent to begin with looking at some of his recommendations for outfitting. Here is his list of clothing and equipment for summertime trips in the North American woods. This particular version was taken from the 1957 reprint of the 1921 edition of “Camping and Woodcraft”. My 1927 edition has an identical list. My comments and clarifications and in green. Quotes from Kephart in khaki.
SUMMER EQUIPMENT FOR BACK-PACKING WEAR
“With such an outfit and his gun or fishing tackle, camera, or whatever may be the tools of his outdoor hobby, anyone of average physique and a little gumption can fare very well in the open, and enjoy absolute independence.”
Woolen gauze undershirt.
Hard to find at a reasonable price, nowadays! Key features are its permeability and ability to dry easily. A clothing system needs to build from the inside out. Modern alternatives may be string vests, mesh synthetics and soft microfibre garments such as Coolmax tee-shirts. In winter Kephart recommends wearing two sets of medium-weight woolen underwear rather than one heavy set.
Woolen gauze (or balbriggan) drawers.
Kephart notes that the legs sweat less than the torso so in warm weather drawers of open-weave ribbed cotton are a viable alternative to woolen gauze. Cotton drawers are easier to wash in the field. If cold conditions or lots of wading is expected drawers should be wool. Drawers should be long legged to protect the knees and legs from scrapes and bumps.
Woolen socks, winter weight, natural color.
These can be safety-pinned to the bottom of the drawers to keep them up, if necessary.
Army overshirt, olive drab chambray (or flannel).

“Flannel” is an ambiguous term but I think in this context he means woolen flannel, both woolen flannel and cotton chambray being suitable for summer overshirts, but it could mean cotton flannel too. There is some mention of chambray being better than “khaki” shirts, which may refer to the army issue item of cotton. The US Army of this period issued both woolen and cotton garments. “Khaki” often refers to the cotton version, the woolen being described as “olive”. Elsewhere Kephart suggests when the weather gets cooler an officer's woolen shirt be used instead of the chambray.

Shown is an illustration from the 1907 Abercrombie and Fitch catalogue. This is likely to be the sort of shirt Kephart wore. It is a head-over design and long enough to be a serviceable nightshirt. Incidentally, this catalogue defines “khaki” as being a closely woven cotton twill.
Silk neckerchief, 27 x 27 in.
Khaki trousers, extra suspender buttons.
Kephart notes that cotton trousers survive the woods better than woolen. His preference is for “genuine English moleskin” cotton. Wool trousers have advantages where the weather is very wet or much wading is done. Army trousers of “olive-tan wool” are acceptable but he considers woolen “kersey” better. Notable is Kephart always uses the term “trousers”, never “pants”. Elsewhere he suggest trousers can be cut off six inches below the knee.
Invisible suspenders.
Kephart notes these are hard on buttons, hence the spares suggested above.
Leather belt, narrow.
Army shoes, cone-headed Hungarian nails.
Army leggings, canvas.
Among their many merits, provide some protection from snake bite.
Felt hat, medium brim, ventilated, felt sweat-band.
A felt sweat-band is preferred to leather since it is permeable and quick drying.
IN POCKETS
Left shirt—Map sections, in cover. Leaf of almanac. Note book and pencil.
The map case he favours has six transparent pockets, each of which can hold two sections of a US Geological Survey map, back to back. Note book should be quadrille ruled for mapping and drawing to scale, which is a valid suggestion even today.
“Take along an almanac to regulate the watch, show the moon's changes (tides, if near the coast), and, by them, to determine the day of the month and week, which one is very apt to forget when he is away from civilization. Have a time-table of the railroad that you expect to return by.”
Right shirt.—Compass.
“I wear the instrument in a small pocket sewed on my shirt for that purpose, so it fits, and attach it to a button-hole by a short, strong cord. A long cord would catch in brush. If the compass is carried in a large pocket it will flop out when you stoop over or fall down.”
Left trousers.—Purse. Waterproof match box, flat pattern (as reserve).
Kephart was a pipe smoker. These matches were for emergencies, the supply on his belt being used for his pipe.
Right trousers.—Pocket knife.
“The jackknife has one stout blade equal to whittling seasoned hickory, and two small blades, of which one is ground thin for such surgery as you may have to perform”
Fob.—Watch.
Left hip.—Pipe. Tobacco.
Right hip.—Bandanna handkerchief.
ON BELT
Right side, front.—Waterproofed matches (50) in leather belt-pocket.
Right side, rear.—Sheath knife.
Blade of less than five inches. Kephart carried a tomahawk, hatchet or axe, so did not feel the need for a larger knife.
Further on, Kephart says that if part of a group it is useful for each member to carry a whistle, and have an agreed code of signals.
ON BACK
Duluth pack sack, 24 x 26 in. . . 2 lbs 4 oz.
Shelter cloth, 7 x 9 ft., waterproof. . . 2 lbs 4 oz.
No support poles are carried. The surrounding woods and the tomahawk met these needs. Unlike many modern campers, Kephart expected to have a camp fire to sleep before. At high altitudes a closed tent (3½-4 lbs) and warmer bedding might be required.
Mosquito net, 68 x 72 in . . 4 oz.
U. S. A, [US Army] blanket, summer weight, 66 x 84 in, . . 3 lbs
Browse bag, 32 x 78 in . . 1 lbs.
The browse bag was a sack that could be filled with foliage, straw or other soft materials to serve as a mattress.
Pillow bag, 20 x 30 in . . 3 oz.
A smaller version of the browse bag, to serve as a pillow.
Rubber cape, 34 in . . 1 lbs 5 oz.
Designed to reach to the knee. Used as protection against the wind as well as the rain.
“A cape has the merits of a poncho, in that it is airy underneath, and it can be slipped on over the pack-sack, while it has the advantage of leaving your arms free to fend off bushes, to climb with, to shoot, paddle, and so on.”
Stag shirt . . 1 lbs 8 oz.
The “stag shirt” Kephart uses is made of “Mackinaw”, a strong woolen cloth. The 1907 Abercrombie and Fitch catalogue describes the Mackinaw cloth it uses as 40 oz. The shirt is used instead of a coat or jacket and may be used as a sleeping garment or in combination with the cape. Modern Mackinaw garments are very expensive, and often only available in red check patterns rather than the more discrete grey Kephart favoured. Fleece jackets are a potential alternative, but many of these are insufficiently windproof so will need to be combined with a robust shirt or hoodie worn over them.
Spare suit underwear and socks, as above . . 1 lbs 2 oz.
Tomahawk, muzzled . . 12 oz.
“The knife never was made that will compare with a good tomahawk.” ( I doubt Kephart ever encountered a kukri!)
The tomahawk or similar provided both firewood and shelter.
“Among my most valued possessions is a tiny Colclesser tomahawk, of 8-ounce head and 2½ inch bitt, which, with hickory handle and home-made sheath, weighs only three-quarters of a pound. I seldom go anywhere in the woods (unless in marching order with a heavier axe) without this little trick.
It is all that is needed to put up a satisfactory shelter wherever there is hemlock or balsam, or bark that will peel, while for other service I use it oftener than I do my jackknife.”
Side-cutting pliers, 5 in, . . 4 oz.
There is some speculation that if Kephart was around today he might have carried a multi-tool. I suspect he might have been quite bemused by examples that weigh half a pound or more!
Carborundum whetstone, 4 x 1 x ½ in . . 2 oz.
Wallet fitted with small scissors, needles, sail needle, awl point, 2 waxed ends, thread on card, sail twine, buttons, safety pins, horse-blanket pins, 2 short rigged fish lines, spare hooks, minnow hooks with half barb filed off, sinkers, snare wire, rubber bands, shoe laces . . 6 oz.
A combination of sewing kit, repair kit and emergency fishing and snaring kit.

Strong twine in bag . . 1 oz.

Aluminum frying-pan (85⁄8 in.), plate, fork, white-metal dessert spoon, dish towel, in bag . . 1 lbs 1 oz.
2 Aluminum buckets (1 qt.), in bag . . 14 oz.
See my blog here for more information on these.
Tin cup, seamless (1 pt.) . . 3 oz.

Oddly the list does not include a water bottle, although elsewhere Kephart tells us:

“One may travel where water is hard to find, though this seldom is the case in a timbered region. The best canteen is one of aluminum which neither leaks nor rusts like the old-fashioned tin affairs. [Aluminum will be corroded by copper ions. Copper ions are present in most tap water.] It should have a canvas cover with felt lining. When the felt is wet its moisture cools the water in the canteen bv evaporation. The canvas cover prevents too rapid evaporation, and keeps the canteen from wetting one's clothing. At night or in case of illness, the thing can be used as a hot-water bottle, the insulation keeping the water hot for a considerable time. The best pattern is the present regulation army canteen, which is shaped like a flat flask, but with one side rounded a little and the other concaved to fit the body. It has a flat bottom, so you can stand it up. The aluminum screw-cap, held by a chain, cannot jolt out like the corks of common canteens.”
Nails and tacks . . 3 oz.
Used to create camp furniture or assist in shelter construction. Kephart tells us these are only needed if expecting to stay several days in one place. Half a dozen each of 6d (2") and 3d (1¼") wire nails, and some galvanized tacks.
Cheesecloth, 1 yd . . 1 oz.
Used to carry fish or hang meat. Also used for straining. Could be used to create a head net against insects.
“…substitute for a tea-ball.”
Fly dope, in pocket oiler . . 2 oz.
Fly dope was insect repellent.
Talcum powder, in wpf. bag . . 1 oz.
For care of the feet.
Comb, tooth brush, tiny mirror, bit of soap in wpf. bag, rolled in small towel secured by rubber bands . . 6 oz.
Toilet paper . . 1 oz.
First aid kit . . 5 oz.
Spare matches, in tin box secured by adhesive plaster . . 2 oz.

Electric flasher, flat, round corners . . 5 oz.

Total pack without provisions. . . 18 lbs 3 oz.

Provisions will be discussed in a future post.
Categories
Phillosoph

Underwear for Survival

Recently I came across another reference to American Civil War (ACW) “Foot Cavalry”. As has been noted in other posts, many infantry in this conflict became adept at moving fast and light. John Worsham’s account of the war as part of Jackson’s brigade is worth a read. So too is John D. Billings' memoir, Hardtack and Coffee, I'm told. Many of the lessons that they learned and techniques that they practiced have been generally ignored in more recent times. In previous posts we saw how such soldiers reduced their sleeping gear to a blanket, gum-blanket or oilcloth and perhaps a shelter half. Their food and eating equipment occupied a foot square haversack. Knapsacks were often discarded and what little they did not wear was rolled up inside a blanket. Such a blanket might contain little more than a spare shirt, socks, a nightcap and perhaps spare underwear. Some cordage, a sewing kit, tobacco and a bible might complete the load.

One advantage these soldiers had was that their jacket and trousers were of wool, which stays warm if wet and dries more readily than cotton. Some garments were “jean cloth” –a mixture of wool and cotton. Wikipedia has some silly comments about woollen uniforms, failing to appreciate that woollen cloth need not be the thick, heavy stuff used for modern winter clothing. Woollen uniforms were used by most armies until after the Second World War when the printing of camouflage patterns favoured switching to cotton.
Long frock coats were the current military fashion at the time of the ACW but the majority of soldiers opted for either sack coats or shell jackets. The sack coat was originally issued as fatigue wear. It was longer than a shell jacket but generally not as long as the civilian garments called sack coats. The shell jacket was a waist-length garment and was favoured by troops that rode. Union infantry seem to have favoured the sack coat while the Confederacy mainly issued shell jackets, probably as an economy measure. Pragmatically the Confederacy allowed trousers to be blue, brown or grey.
Greatcoats were also used and this article has instructions on how to fold one to fit in the knapsack. If the knapsack was not being worn the coat was presumably rolled in the blanket roll or carried in the company baggage until weather was cold enough for them to be needed. Presumably, many soldiers simply wore their blanket as a cloak if it was chilly. Billings tells us some soldiers discarded their blanket in favour of the coat.
It is what these soldiers wore under their uniforms that is of interest to the modern outdoorsman. At this period, shirts were regarded as an inner or underwear garment more than they are now. You might have seen soldiers in shirtsleeves, but wearing a shirt as the outermost layer was much less common. Shirts might be woollen, cotton or linen. They might be issue items or civilian in origin. Many shirts were sent from home and homemade. Typically a shirt would be of the pull-over type with a buttoned opening reaching part way down. Such shirts were also thigh-length. One reason for this length is that a shirt would also serve a soldier as a nightshirt. Nearly a century later Rommel’s Afrika Korps were also issued long shirts so they could sleep in them. Another reason for the long shirttails was that many men in the ACW period did not wear underpants. Instead they would tuck their shirt tails between their legs, a practice that dates back to at least the middle ages. More than one shirt might be worn. A letter from a soldier asks his family to send him four woollen shirts, two of thin wool that can be used as undershirts.
While researching this article I came across this facebook group detailed the contents of a British soldier’s blanket roll in 1776. Three shirts were carried, one worn, two packed, and men ordered to “change their linnen three times a week”.
A recent military innovation of the ACW period was the issue of drawers. Many soldiers had never encountered such things in civilian life and it was considered good sport to try to convince a newbie that these were parade trousers that he should wear. The drawers issued were ankle-length and made of a cotton flannel, hardwearing on the outside and soft on the inner face. The use of cotton is perhaps a little surprising, given that cotton is cold when wet and slow to dry. In a previous post we saw that the WW2 Soviet soldier wore long cotton underwear, but this was presumably for easy processing through the field laundry. One presumes laundry for a civil war soldier was more personal or ad hoc. Perhaps there is something about the combination of cotton drawers under wool trousers that I am missing. One advantage of cotton is that it could be boiled to kill lice, ticks and fleas. Wearing two pairs of drawers might be done in cold weather or when riding. When drawers were worn the long shirt tails probably provided an additional protection against chaffing.
Worsham mentions “Many wore around their waists, next to their skin, a flannel belt or worsted string, to prevent bowel complaint”. This may be a reference to the “kidney warmers” favoured by Germans (and Japanese!) and presumably those of German descent, as many Americans were. Incidentally, “kidney warmers” were another component of Afrika Korps uniform. A future blog will discuss kidney warmers. They seem a useful addition to your cold weather gear.
Laundering seems to have been an issue for civil war soldiers. New or clean underwear seems to have been a cherished spoil of war. There are even accounts of soldiers redressing during battles.
On the subject of cotton underwear vs woollen we can look to James Austin Wilder and Horace Kephart, several decades later. In “Jack-Knife Cookery” Wilder advises scouts to wear “light woolen athletics”, even in summer. Kephart (Camping and Woodcraft 1927) informs us:
 “However, the broad statement that one should wear nothing but wool at all seasons requires modification. It depends upon quality and weave.
Some (wool) flannels are less absorptive and less permeable (especially after a few washings by the scrub-and wring-out process) than open-texture cottons and linens.”
“If woolen garments are washed like cotton ones-soap rubbed in, scrubbed on a washboard or the like, and wrung out — they will invariably shrink. The only way to prevent shrinkage is to soak them in lukewarm suds (preferably of fels-naphtha or a similar soap), then merely squeeze out the water by pulling through the hand, rinse, squeeze out again, stretch, and hang up to dry. This is easy, but it requires a large vessel, and such a vessel few campers have.”
“Drawers must not be oversize, or they will chafe. But one’s legs perspire much less than his body, and need less protection; so, up to the time of frost, let the drawers be of ribbed cotton, which is permeable and dries out quickly. Cotton drawers have the further advantage that they do not shrink from the frequent wettings and constant rubbings that one’s legs get in wilderness travel. Wool, however, is best for wading trout streams. For riding, the best drawers are of silk.
I conclude that for cold weather, for work in high altitudes where changes of temperature are sudden and severe, and for deep forests where the night air is chilly, woolen underclothes should be worn. In hot climates, and for summer wear in open country, a mixture of silk and wool is best, but open-texture linen or cotton does very well. Pajamas should be of flannel, at all seasons, if one sleeps in a tent or out-of-doors.”
“Drawers must fit snugly in the crotch, and be not too thick, or they will chafe the wearer. They should be loose in the leg, to permit free knee action. Full-length drawers are best because they protect the knees against dirt and bruises, and safety-pins can be used to hold up the socks (garters impede circulation).”
In his 1906 edition, “The Book of Camping and Woodcraft” he comments:
 “It is unwise to carry more changes of underwear, handkerchiefs, etc., than one can comfortably get along with. They will all have to be washed, anyway, and so long as spare clean ones remain no man is going to bother about washing the others. This means an accumulation of soiled clothes, which is a nuisance of the first magnitude.”
What does all this mean to the modern outdoorsman or serviceman? There are obvious advantages to having your field gear of wool but this can be a little hard to achieve in modern times. Woollen garments tend to be expensive and may be too heavy or too warm for all-season wear. Items can be found on Army surplus sites, often of Swedish or Finnish origin.  Reenactor suppliers can also yield suitable garments, be they medieval, ACW or 20th century. Prices are often high but some companies do offer budget items. I have come across ACW sack coats for about $60, which is not bad if you are happy with either grey or blue. Viking/ LARP/ medieval tunics can be found for similar prices and these may actually be more practical items for field wear.


Below is a wool/ polyamid tunic that incorporates printed camouflage components. This suggests how a monocolour woolen garment might be customized.

It is worth noting here that Kephart favoured a cotton flannel or chambray shirt as his outer garment over gauze woollen underclothing. Trousers were either cotton moleskin or wool kersey. Kephart notes that:
“The material and quality of one’s underwear are of more consequence than the shell he puts over it, for his comfort and health depend more on them.”
Obviously long undergarments can improve our comfort when away from our centrally-heated and air-conditioned buildings.
A common theme we have seen is that woollen undergarments should be light and of open weave. Kephart and Wilder both advocated that in winter wearing two sets of summer-weight woollen undergarments was preferable over one heavier layer. Most of the woollen undergarments that can be found nowadays are designed for winter use and too warm for all-season use. Long underwear of synthetic materials are also mainly designed as “thermals” for when the mercury drops.
For the upper body we can get by with one or more layers of thin shirts, tee-shirts or long-sleeved tee-shirts. The Spetsnaz use of string vests is worth recalling here. Coolmax is a synthetic that is soft, fast drying but not overly warm. I have used a coolmax tee-shirt on several of my travels, including a visit to humid Hong Kong. I didn’t care about getting drenched in the heavy rain since the garment would dry off so quickly when the temperature rose afterwards.
For the legs most of the long underwear commonly available is likely to prove too warm for all-season wear. String long johns seem to cost ten times the price of a string vest! One solution may be to repurpose some pyjama bottoms as long field drawers. Brushed cotton, cotton flannel and soft polycottons should all prove suitable. Just make sure the fit around the loins is sufficient to prevent chaffing. The pyjama top can serve as a shirt, if pattern and colour allow.
My female readers may have guessed the second suggestion, which is to use pantyhose/ tights as an inner layer. Many horse riders know the benefit of these against chaffing. You can even get tights specifically designed for men, some more so than others! Tights/ leggings in coolmax can be found and I am considering acquiring some.
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Phillosoph

Soviet Soldier Simplicity

The other day I was reading an article about small unit actions. In the introduction it was explained that the men and women recruited as Soviet soldiers were used to living close to nature and tolerated and even thrived under conditions that would defeat German soldiers.
The questions that spring to mind are how was this done and how can this be applied to modern soldiers? I made a few posts on the Soviet soldier’s equipment some months back. It is apparent that the Soviet soldier of the Great Patriotic War got by with relatively little equipment. Let us start by looking at his clothing.
The basic Soviet field dress was a pull-over tunic and a pair of long breeches. This was an outfit that European fighters have used for many centuries. The Soviet tunic and loose trousers would not seem that unfamiliar to a Viking, Celt, Saxon or a medieval peasant.
Like many uniforms of the Second World War, it was constructed of wool, which has the advantage that it does not chill the wearer that much if wet. The Soviets also had a cotton version for summer use.
The tunic and trousers were worn directly over the underwear. The underwear seems to have been a long-sleeved undershirt and long johns for both summer and winter use. Both of these items were issued in summer and winter forms. Both forms were made from cotton, the difference being the winter version was fustian with a fluffy nap on the inside. The use of cotton for both the summer and winter underwear is interesting. I suspect this may have been selected to simplify mass laundering of items. Theoretically the Soviet soldier exchanged his underwear for a fresh set every ten days.
There were relatively few items for use in sub-zero temperatures. Each soldier had a greatcoat, which was also used instead of a blanket when sleeping so was carried all year. When not worn the greatcoat was usually carried rolled up and worn across the chest
The distinctive telogreika padded jacket and vatnie sharovari trousers were made from cotton and filled with cotton wool. It was cheap and simple to manufacture and very effective. Its thickness and wearing the garment over woollen clothing helped counter some of the disadvantages of cotton if it got wet. Below zero conditions meant that rain was seldom a problem. Telogreika and vatnie sharovari are often seen as outermost garments but were intended to be used under the greatcoat or sheepskin coats.
I am unsure as to how the telogreika and vatnie sharovari were carried if they were not being worn. They look like they would be too bulky to carry in the soldier’s backpack. Perhaps they were rolled up inside the greatcoat. Possibly they were treated as baggage items and only issued when the winter tunics were. Sheepskin coats might be worn in winter instead of the greatcoat. Some books claim the sheepskin coats were for cavalry and tankers but photographs prove that many other units acquired them. The greatcoat or sheepskin and telogreika were worn with ushanka fur hats, balaclavas, mittens/gloves and valenki felt overboots. With these few items the Soviet soldier operated in minus 50 conditions.
The rest of the Soviet soldier’s equipment also forms a relatively short list.
• A weapon and ammunition and grenades.
• An entrenching tool: numerous uses including as a close combat weapon.
• A canteen.
• Gas mask case and contents.
• A rain cape (plashch palatka)
• A simple haversack (myeshok).
The haversack contained a bag of tent pegs and a pole-section for constructing shelters. Contents also including a mess pail, shaving kit, soap, toothbrush and weapon-cleaning kit. There is no bayonet scabbard since bayonets were always carried fixed to the weapon.

The rain cape might be carried folded up in the haversack. It could also be rolled around the outside of the greatcoat roll or carried as a roll instead of the greatcoat. These rolls were also used to carry items. The cape is another item that would be familiar to a viking etc. Effectively it is a rain-resistant cloak and thus could be used for warmth as well as protection from the rain. The rain cape was a heavier item than modern ponchos but was also more robust. It could be used to drag a wounded man to safety, for example. One cape could be used as a shelter and another as a ground-cloth to accommodate two men, who slept together in their greatcoats. Capes could be combined to form larger shelters.
The haversack also carried rations. While I have found descriptions of what a Soviet soldier would carry, I have yet to find indications of the quantities.
Other notable items used were one or two-piece camouflage outfits designed to be worn over the field uniform. Generally these were used by scouts, snipers and engineers. White coveralls were used for camouflage in winter.
Post-war, a few interesting wrinkles were added to this basic equipment. In another post I have detailed the spetsnaz use of cotton string vests and coats with a “skirt” extension piece.
The equipment listed above is very brief compared to that of a modern soldier or outdoorsman. Part of the reason for this is that some items such as the greatcoat and raincape were multipurpose. The list above is probably incomplete. Historical sources often do not mention items such as tinderboxes and matches since it was inconceivable to the author that a peasant or outdoorsman would need to be told to carry these.
Some items we have now simply did not exist then.
Personal night-vision equipment and radio communicators had not yet been developed. The use of flashlights was restricted in the Soviet army, whilst the modern soldier often finds himself searching dark places. There is no compass and map-case in the standard Soviet field kit since navigation was for NCOs and officers.
Very often the Soviet soldier did without many of the things we regard as essentials such as kipmats, blankets, sleeping bags and tents.
The last sentence brings me to another thing that should be considered. What items on your equipment list are truly essential and what are just useful and nice to have?
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Phillosoph

Spetznaz String Vest.

Today I’m going to post another exert from the book Aquarium, again detailing Spetsnaz apparel as described in the book.
“As for the rest of a Spetsnaz soldier's clothing, his underwear is made of thin linen. It should be new but already used a little and laundered at least once. Over the thin underwear he wears a vest made of a thick string, so that there is always a layer of air about a centimetre deep between the underwear and the outer garments. This was cleverly thought out. If it's very hot and you are running with sweat and your whole body is burning, the string vest is your salvation. Your clothes do not cling to your body and there is excellent ventilation. When it's cold the air pocket protects the body like a feather duvet, and moreover, weighs nothing. The string vest has yet another purpose. If a mosquito get its nose through your clothes it reaches empty space and not the body. Only in very difficult circumstances does a Spetsnaz soldier allow himself to be driven out into the open. He spends his time in forests and marshes. He may lie for hours in a burning hot marsh or in fierce stinging nettles with clouds of mosquitoes buzzing around him. Only the string vest can save him then. Over it he wears trousers and a tunic of green cotton material. All seams are treble-stitched. The tunic and trousers are soft but hard-wearing. At the elbows, knees and shoulders the material is trebled for greater strength”.
I have experimented with using a string vest as outdoor wear. The time that comes to mind is during a concert in a park on a very hot day. I wore the vest under a relatively heavyweight tee-shirt and had no problems with clothing sticking to my skin, despite the humidity. As the sun went down and the air got chilly I remained comfortable, so it is an idea worth trying out.